我想平衡、优化和最小化研究工作中的空间，尤其是段落之间的空间。使用下面显示的序言时，问题在于段落之间的空间不平衡，也没有优化（某些段落中的空间较大，而其他段落中的空间较小），我需要一些帮助来解决此类问题？有关更多信息，请参阅以下日志文件：
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\Large {\textbf{ EXAMINING MULTIDIMENSIONAL POVERTY\\ INDEX IN ETHIOPIA (2011/12): ROBUSTNESS TEST,\\ DECOMPOSITION, AND MAPPING }}\\
%\Large{\textbf{Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) in Ethiopia}}\\
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\huge{\textbf{A Ph.D. Thesis:\\ University of KwaZulu-Natal\\ School of Accounting, Economics and Finance\\ Department of Economics }}\\[3mm]
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By WELDESLASSIE HAILAI\\
Candidate\#:{214585063}\\
Supervisor Dr. Claire Vermaak\\
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\section{Theoretical Framework}
The Ethiopian multidimensional poverty index is compiled using the Alkire-Foster method and conceptually nested within the capability approach (Sen, 1985, 1992, 1999). The capability approach helps to call set the indexes while the MPI deals with the technical aspects of identifying and aggregating multidimensionally deprived and poor Ethiopian households.\\
We contend that well-specified multidimensional poverty indexes represent human well-being better than conventional resource-based approaches where vital aspects of poverty are shielded under the buses of average composite poverty analysis.\\
We find Ethiopian MIP profile is much higher than the official reports under the monetary approach. Considering gender, MPI for women-headed households are higher than men headed Ethiopian households. As one would generally expect MPI poverty in the rural area is higher than the urban area. However, when we decomposed poverty by regions, the most resources reach and hub of all Ethiopian business activities, the Oromia region, is the most MIP poor, it's significantly and substantially higher as compared with the other four major regions. \\
In addition, we also documented MPI poverty by different age groups, MPI indicators, and domains.\\
Nevertheless, we also documented a substantially higher MPI poverty as compared with the Ethiopian poverty reports in the World Bank, MPI, and other international organizations. Again, we could not find a substantive supportive evidence to claim that Ethiopian poverty in the Global MPI was higher since lowers poverty cut-offs was used as it was claimed in the World Bank Report regarding Ethiopia's Economy (World Bank report, 2015). We used a very high poverty cut-offs (K=40$\%$), our estimation result is closer to the global MPI in the UNDP and OPHI reports.\\
Finally, the findings of this research will contribute to reforming curriculum and modules that deal with development economics in general and multidimensional measurements of poverty and well-being and evaluations of antipoverty programs outlined and implemented by Regional Governments and Federal Governments of Ethiopian that are currently being taught in the Ethiopian Higher Educations Institutions.
\subsection{Research Dissemination Mechanisms/Implementations Considerations}
We understand that dissemination and extension of the research work are strenuous and challenging. Effective dissemination here is contextualized as a phenomenon that engages the recipient in a process whether it is one of increased awareness, understanding or commitment and action.\\
Our first endeavor towards materializing and achieving the pillars of dissemination explained above is an establishment of a steering committee of key informants, eminent and key figures, academia and research institutions in the fields of multidimensional poverty measurement, development economics, and sustainable development etc. We engaged these critical mass to have common goals and create consensuses and we plan to reach out to the community. After we assessed the impact at this stage and enriched the existing information, knowledge, and practices, the scaling up and scaling out phases will follow suit. \\
On the other hand, we communicate and influences to other projects that have been carried out in similar areas in order to avoid the danger of overlapping or conflicting activities. Since we strongly believe that it is extremely useful to make contact with other projects and think about how we might maximize resources, such as hosting a national conference on a theme jointly that much better use of staff time and resources.\\
We considered all other dissemination windows of opportunities including an informal setting. Finally, the final report shall be reproduced in CD-ROM, paper materials, online resources, mass media, radio, tv, magazines and most importantly their articles will be published in the British Journal of Environment and Climate Change, Journal of African Economies, African Journal of Economic and Management Studies, African Journal of Economic Review, African Journals Online: Economics and Development, and Journal of Special Issues/OPHI. Besides convenient types of dissemination media will be considered using, mailing lists, newsletters, briefings, conferences, e-mail, reports, and workshops, one-to-one dialogues/conversations, emailing base lists, websites, and other media outlets.
\subsection{Limitation of the Study}
The pillar limitation of this study is that it does not address the conventional monetary approach, nor does it compare the monetary and multidimensional measurement of poverty as this subject will be addressed in a separate chapter (chapter 2) as it provides critical additional insight. Additionally, it cannot be corroborated to resolve the data related problems prevalent in developing countries in general and in Ethiopian in particular. \\
The rearrangement properties hold true given the basic assumption under the rearrangement properties is that either all the dimensions are substitutes or all dimensions are complimented that is highly constrained and simplistic assumptions. However, further research is required on how rearrangement properties behave if the fundamental assumptions are relaxed/violated and on the practical aspect of situations when some poverty indicators are substitutes in one dimension but complements in the other dimension and or both.\\
Although we have employed a noble research method that covers almost all major indicators of overlapping multiple deprivation and poverty of Ethiopian households and is the best representative data in terms of coverage and depth, accuracy, legitimacy and precision, timeliness and relevance, completeness and comprehensiveness, availability and accessibility and granularity and uniqueness; and so forth. However, these noble data do not include information on relevant to economic opportunities, economic autonomy, social capital(networks, bonding, feeling of trust and safety, participation, self-esteem, sense of belonging,of being heard, symbolism, peace, decent/quality of life, \dots); lack of psychological dimensions such as powerlessness, voicelessness, dependency, shame, humiliation and what have you. \\
MPI Critic\\
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(more discussions here)\\
\subsection{Organization of the Study}
The study is organized as follows: section one is the broad background, introduction, justification, overview of the multidimensional poverty in broad ways and pertinent to Ethiopia; the purpose of the study, general and specific objectives and limitation of the study. Section two deals with Literature Review, in general, consisting of types and sources of literature review subsection that in turn includes integrated literature review, Overview of Ethiopian Economic Strategies and Review of Socioeconomic Factors, Ethiopia's policy related, data related and development challenges and so forth. Besides, Theoretical and conceptual literature review, empirical and systematic literature review, methodology related literature review, and historical/chronological literature review. \\
Section three by and lager presents research methods and approaches that comprises subsections research design, data sources, research questions, and hypothesis. Equally important, the results and finding section comprises subsections multidimensional poverty index in Ethiopia, comparing Ethiopia's MPI with Other One-dimensional monetary measures, Ethiopia's MPI decomposed by dimensions and indicators, mapping Ethiopia's national and regional MPI indices, and analysis of dominance tests. Moreover, this section includes estimation results and interpretations, and discussions, implications of the contribution of each indicator to Ethiopia's MPI; examining the difference between MPI incidences of poverty and monetary absolute poverty measurement in Ethiopia and Ethiopia's MPI poverty indexes. Finally, conclusions and implications for Policy and/or Further Research section which in turn consists of conclusions, implications for policy and further research and recommendations.
\newpage
\section{Literature Review}
\subsection{Understanding Multidimensional Poverty Index}
This section briefly describes what the research topic is why this topic, highlights the importance of the topic, succinctly makes general statements regarding the topic and presents an overview of the currents status of the research subject.\\
In order to create a general understanding of the topic, we conflated spectrum of views to provide an operational definition of multidimensional poverty index (MPI) that fits our purpose. Modifying and expanding the definition given by Alkire et al. (2015), the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)can broadly and roughly be defined as the state or condition of a person or community of being homelessness, landlessness, joblessness, lack of access to basic human necessities, lack of economic outcomes, economic opportunities, economic autonomy, and economic resources ( such as wealth, employment, infrastructures,\dots); lack of social resources (health services, clean water, improved electricity, education, transport, sanitation services, credit, information, cultural goods, \dots); lack of social capital(networks, bonding, feeling of trust and safety, participation, self-esteem, sense of belonging,of being heard, symbolism, peace, decent/quality of life, \dots); lack of psychological dimensions such as powerlessness, voicelessness, dependency, shame, humiliation, \dots). It identifies multiple deprivations at the society, household and individual level in health, education, the standard of living and so on. It uses microdata from household surveys; unlike other multiple indicators of poverty measurements (for example the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index where all the indicators needed to be constructed from the measure that must come from the same survey). Each person in a given household is classified as poor or non-poor depending on the number of deprivations his or her household experiences. These data are then aggregated into the national measure of poverty. The MPI reflects both the prevalence of overlapping multidimensional deprivation, and its intensity how many deprivations people experience at the same time (UNDP, 2015). \\
\subsection{Types and Sources of Literature Review}
By and large, we relied highly on primary and secondary sources as the sources of data is secondary noble and well representative data. Research summaries reported in the textbook forms, journals (printed and open access), articles (in newspapers and scholarly journals),scholarly literature review and review articles, book reviews, newspapers, online websites, visual and audio materials and so forth were among the main sources for our literature review part and the entire study. \\
Moreover, serial publications (journals, magazines, and newspapers) consisting of primary sources; books( both functioning as primary and secondary sources); visual and audio material(visual materials such as maps, photographs, prints, graphic arts, ... and digital recordings, documentaries, tv news broadcasts) were also reviewed as potential sources to some extent. \\
Furthermore, archival materials (manuscripts, archives, diaries, journals, photographs, interactive maps,) as primary sources; government documents (statistical compilations of economics, demographics and scientific data) that provide shreds of evidence of activities, functions, and policies were used as primary source. Finally, we also reviewed tertiary sources (guidebooks, indexes, abstracts, manuals, and textbooks).\\
The following section succinctly presents different types of literature review pertinent to the study. Brief systematic analysis and synthesis of a wealth of literature relevant to the study are considered, integrated and interpreted aiming at giving the general picture and overview of matters and setting around the resource-based monetary approach of poverty measurement and the associated drawbacks. The strength of MPI is highlighted so that it enables one to grasp the value-added contribution of this study to the existing knowledge.
\subsection{ Empirical and Systematic Literature Review}
Scholars and researchers have divergent views and are becoming skeptical over the use of one-dimensional poverty analysis particularly in the previous two decades. There is a debate on what a comprehensive perspective of poverty is, how it can be measured in the lens of multidimensional perspectives, settings, and matters, how it can be compared with the conventional monetary measure of poverty and its status as compared to the traditional ways of poverty measurements. In a nutshell, the poverty measurement in a broader concept has been receiving much attention (Ruggeri Laderchi et al. 2003; Ravallion, 2011; Ferreira, 2011; and Meyer and Sullivan, 2012). \\
In such setting markets usually fragmented, distorted, incomplete and imperfect (Tsui, 2002; Bourguignon and Chakravarty, 2003; Thorbecke, 2008) and monetary values are not good indicators and representatives of human well-being (Hulme and McKay, 2008; Thorbecke, 2008). Equally important, there were convincing claims that state having sufficient income that can procure basic baskets of goods doesn't diametrically imply it is going to be spent needlessly on those baskets of good (Thorbecke, 2008).\\
What is more, poverty has been defined by one-dimensional and conventional monetary measures, such as income, expenditure, expenditure and other similar direct measures. However, there is a broad consensus that no one indicator alone can capture the multiple aspects that constitute poverty. As a result of this dynamism in thinking, replacing the previous Human Poverty Index (HPI), the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) was developed in 2010 by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) and the United Nations Development Program and uses different factors to determine poverty beyond income-based lists. The global MPI is released annually by OPHI and the results published on its website.\\
Multidimensional poverty is made up of several factors that constitute poor people's experience of deprivation – such as poor health, lack of education, inadequate living standard, lack of income (as one of several factors considered), dis-empowerment, poor quality of work and threat from violence. A multidimensional measure can incorporate a range of indicators to capture the complexity of poverty and better inform policies to relieve it. Different indicators can be chosen appropriately to the society and situation.\\
Multidimensional poverty analysis has also ventured beyond purely academic discussions into the broader policy debate, both within a number of national, regional and global frontiers. In the last five years, for example, Mexico's National Council for the Evaluation of Social Policy (CONEVAL,) adopted a multidimensional index as the country's official poverty measure and the Government of Colombia followed suit by adopting a poverty reduction strategy focused on five separate dimensions, and relying on a variant of the Alkire and Foster (2011a) approach for quantifying progress in 2011 (Francisco Ferreira and Maria Ana Lugo, 2012). Internationally, the MPI of Alkire and Santos (2010) which was reported by over 100 countries in the UNDP's Development Report 2010, has also gained dominance.\\
The global MPI uses information from ten gauges which are structured into three dimensions: health, education and living standards, accustoming the same dimensions and weights as the Human Development Index (HDI, 2010). Every person is identified as poor or non-poor in every yardstick based on a deficiency cutoff (for detail notes refer to Alkire and Santos 2010). Health and education standards reflect attainment of all household members in their effort to salivate out of poverty. Then, every households deficit score is built based on a weighted mean of the denial they experience by means of a nested weight structure: The same weight across dimension and the same weight for every standard within dimensions. \\
The mushrooming literature on the use of the MPI now includes studies such as Alkire and Foster (2011a), Chakravarty, Deutsch, and Siber (2008), Deutsch and Silber (2005), Duclos, Sahn, and Younger (2006) and Maasouri and Lugo (2008). There has been a vigorous debate on the conceptual and empirical virtues and demerits of the MPI since it was first included by the HDRO in the annual Human Development Report in 2010 (see, for example, Lustig, 2011; Silber, 2011; Alkire and Foster, 2011b; Rippin 2010; Ravallion, 2011, Bossert, Chakravarty, and D’Ambrosio, 2012).\\
MPI has become an area of great debate for many prominent development economists and researchers although no one seems to dispute the point that, like development, poverty deprivations exist in multiple domains, and are often strongly correlated. \\
To date, save for some reports, yet, to our knowledge no academic studies have estimated the MPI for Ethiopia. By merging data set 2004-2009 from the health, education and other sectors separately; the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative reported the MPI to be 0.564, the percentage of MPI poor to be 87.3$\%$, and the average intensity across the poor to be 64.6$\%$ (OPHI, 2015). However, research on the dynamic MPI, inequality among the poor, and a country-wide map of MPI has never been conducted, and this thesis will endeavor to fill this gap using the recent ESS panel data sets.
\subsubsection{Brief Review Literature on Ethiopia's Socioeconomic Factors}
In Ethiopia, agriculture is the main contributor and backbone of the Ethiopian economy contributing 84$\%$ as primary sources of food and income, 85$\%$ contribution to export sector, 73$\%$ contribution to employment, supplies 70$\%$ of the raw material requirements of local industries and 39$\%$ contribution to GDP and many other allied economic activities such as marketing, processing, expansion of aggro-processing industrial parks, blossoming of small and medium business enterprise, expansion and promotion of export products and services depend on the agricultural sector (USAID-Ethiopia, 2015).\\
Historically, in Ethiopia, rural poverty outweighs (see the next table below) and only 20.5(21, 174, 205, 2017 est.) percent live in urban areas and historically poverty in rural of Ethiopia have been higher than urban poverty.
\begin{quotation}
,..., Although most Ethiopians are rural dwellers and subsistence farmers, the poorest 40 percent tend to be even more likely to live in rural areas and engage in agriculture. While educational attainment among average Ethiopians is low, it is even lower for the bottom 40 percent (1.5 years) compared to the top 60 percent (2.8 years),..., (World Bank, 2016)
\end{quotation}
Consequently, propositions that state urban poverty has an offsetting effect on the gains in the poverty reduction in the agricultural sector do not seem correct. On the other hand, according to World Bank Report (2014, 2015 and 2016)for the last decade, Ethiopian Agricultural growth ranged between 7.5-9.5 $\%$. Likewise, USAID-Ethiopia (2016) reported that Ethiopia has experienced strong and broad-based economic growth over the past decade, averaging 10.9 percent per year, over double the regional average.\\
\begin{quotation}
In addition, the high GDP growth has been relatively inclusive, as it has uplifted about 20 million people out of poverty and facilitated the achievement of most of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) targets, Ethiopia, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED, 2016)
\end{quotation}
The following tables 5, 6 and 7 below reveal the contribution of each sector and status of various socioeconomic indicators. \\
The lack of infrastructural development, including roads and communication systems, prevent farmers from being able to access markets. With the distorted markets and lack of these markets, farmers struggle to obtain modern agricultural inputs such as seed, fertilizer, and tools which are critical to developing a modern farming system leaving the agriculture of Ethiopia at a bare sustenance level. \\
Poverty reduction has been the core objective of the Ethiopian Government. The most recent major pushes and overarching policy response to agricultural productivity challenges, deep-rooted poverty, and food insecurity in Ethiopia and broad strategies aiming at paving the ground for industrialization via stimulating agricultural output productivity, achieving robust economic growth and creating a strong bond between the agricultural, manufacturing and industrial output and productivity, enhancing the service delivery in the public sector and other allied sectors greed towards reducing poverty under the umbrella of Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization (ADLI) strategy somehow mobilized the Ethiopia's Economy. To this effect, some major Ethiopia's Economic Strategies have been crafted although their full-scale implementation is debatable. \\
Table 6 below, reports the status of Ethiopian well-being Indicators. Although it looks very low as compared with other low-income countries, these uni-dimensional monetary poverty measures indicate a better situation contrary to the country's multidimensional poverty reports. According to the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI, 2011), Ethiopia's Incidence of Poverty/Multidimensional Headcount Ratio \textit{(H)} was reported as 88.6$\%$, Average Intensity Across the Poor \textit{A} was revealed as 63.5$\%$ and the Multidimensional Poverty Index $(MPI=H{\times}A$ was reported as 0.562.
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